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Financial hardship, social-economic position and depression: results from the PATH Through Life Survey
- Authors:
- BUTTERWORTH Peter, RODGERS Brian, WINDSOR Tim D.
- Journal article citation:
- Social Science and Medicine, 69(2), July 2009, pp.229-237.
- Publisher:
- Elsevier
The association between depression and hardship over time is investigated. The study also seeks to investigate the consistency of the association across the lifecourse. This study reports analysis of two waves of data from a large community survey conducted in the city of Canberra and the surrounding region in south-east Australia. The PATH Through Life Study used a narrow-cohort design, with 6715 respondents representing three birth cohorts (1975–1979; 1956–1960; and 1937–1941) assessed on the two measurement occasions (4 years apart). Depression was measured using the Goldberg Depression Scale and hardship assessed by items measuring aspects of deprivation due to lack of resources. A range of measures of socio-economic circumstance and demographic characteristics were included in logistic regression models to predict wave 2 depression. The results showed that current financial hardship was strongly and independently associated with depression, above the effects of other measures of socio-economic position and demographic characteristics. In contrast, the effect of prior financial difficulty was explained by baseline depression symptoms. There were no reliable cohort differences in the association between hardship and depression having controlled for socio-demographic characteristics. There was some evidence that current hardship was more strongly associated with depression for those who were not classified as depressed at baseline than for those identified with depression at baseline. The evidence of the contemporaneous association between hardship and depression suggests that addressing deprivation may be an effective strategy to moderate socio-economic inequalities in mental health.
Socio-economic position and common mental disorders: longitudinal study in the general population in the UK
- Authors:
- SKAPINAKIS Petros, et al
- Journal article citation:
- British Journal of Psychiatry, 189(2), August 2006, pp.109-117.
- Publisher:
- Cambridge University Press
Individuals in lower socio socio-economic groups have an increased prevalence of common mental disorders. The aim was to investigate the longitudinal association between socio-economic position and common mental disorders in a general population sample in the UK. Participants (n=2406) were assessed at two time points 18 months apart with the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule. The sample was stratified into two cohorts according to mental health status at baseline. None of the socio-economic indicators studied was significantly associated with an episode of common mental disorder at follow-up after adjusting for baseline psychiatric morbidity. The analysis of separate diagnostic categories showed that subjective financial difficulties at baseline were independently associated with depression at follow-up in both cohorts. These findings support the view that apart from objective measures of socio-economic position, more subjective measures might be equally important from an aetiological or clinical perspective
Profiles of depressive symptoms among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks
- Authors:
- LINCOLN Karen D., et al
- Journal article citation:
- Social Science and Medicine, 65(2), July 2007, pp.200-213.
- Publisher:
- Elsevier
Latent profile analysis was used to summarize profiles of depressive symptoms among a nationally representative sample of US-born and Caribbean-born Blacks. Analyses are based on the responses of 4915 African Americans and Caribbean Blacks from the National Survey of American Life. A high symptoms and a low symptoms class were identified. Age, gender, negative interaction within the individual's social network (e.g., conflict, demands, criticism) and racial discrimination were associated with depressive symptoms in the low symptoms class, whereas socioeconomic status, gender, emotional support and negative interaction were associated with depressive symptoms in the high symptoms class. The findings demonstrate the heterogeneity within the Black population in the USA and the distinct sociodemographic, family network and stress correlates of depressive symptoms for each latent class.
Predictors of depressive symptomatology among lower social class caregivers of persons with chronic mental illness
- Authors:
- SONG Li-yu, BIEGEL David E., MILLIGAN Sharon E.
- Journal article citation:
- Community Mental Health Journal, 33(4), August 1997, pp.269-286.
- Publisher:
- Springer
Examines the predictors of depressive symptomatology among caregivers of persons with chronic mental illness. Data were collected through in-person interviews with family caregivers of adults with chronic mental illness who were served by mental health case management agencies in the USA. The results indicated that insufficiency of overall social support was the most powerful predictor of caregiver depressive symptomatology. Higher levels of client behavioural problems and insufficient support from family members and mental health professionals related to the caregiving role were associated with higher levels of caregiver depressive symptomatology through their associations with caregiver burden. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
The association of major depressive episodes with income inequality and the human development index
- Authors:
- CIFUENTES Manuel, et al
- Journal article citation:
- Social Science and Medicine, 67(4), August 2008, pp.529-539.
- Publisher:
- Elsevier
The aim of this study was to estimate the association between country income distribution and human development with the 12-month occurrence of major depressive episodes across countries. A total of 251,158 people surveyed by the World Health Organization from 2002 to 2003 from 65 countries were included in the study. The survey contained items for identifying major depressive episodes (MDE) in the previous 12 months, attained education (used as an indicator of individual socioeconomic status) and other demographic information. Income inequality was measured with the Gini index, a national-level indicator; the United Nations human development index (HDI) measured overall country development. Country-level and multilevel linear regression models were utilized to study the associations. It was found that moderately developed countries had the lowest adjusted prevalence of MDE followed by high and low developed countries. The Gini index was positively associated with major depressive episodes, but only among high HDI countries. After adjusting for age, gender, marital status, education and HDI, the multilevel prevalence ratio indicated a 4% increase in risk of MDE for a person living in a country associated with a 1% increment in income equality. This finding means, for example, that comparing two highly developed countries, one with low income inequality with another with high income inequality, one would expect to see an increase in the prevalence of MDE from 4.0% to 6.2%. These findings raise important questions about the role of income inequality on social forces that can lead to depression.
Disentangling the effects of race and SES on arthritis-related symptoms, coping, and well-being in African American and White women
- Author:
- McILVANE J. M.
- Journal article citation:
- Aging and Mental Health, 11(5), September 2007, pp.556-569.
- Publisher:
- Taylor and Francis
This study examined both unique and interactive effects of race and socioeconomic status (SES) on arthritis-related symptoms, coping, and well-being in African American and White women. Participants included 77 African American and 98 White women, aged 45 to 90, who completed structured, face-to-face interviews. A series of 2 × 2 MANCOVAs examined race (African American, White) and SES (high/low education or high/low occupational status) differences in arthritis-related symptoms, coping, and well-being. African Americans used more religious coping, wishful-thinking, seeking social support, and emotional expression than Whites. Individuals with low SES reported worse arthritis-related symptoms, poorer well-being, and greater use of coping strategies that tend to be maladaptive. Race × SES interactions revealed higher depressive symptoms in African Americans with low versus high education and coping differences in African Americans with low versus high occupational status; however differences in depressive symptoms and coping based on SES were not evident for Whites. Results demonstrate unique and interactive race and SES differences for arthritis-related symptoms, coping, and well-being showing the complexity of race and SES in the realm of physical and mental health.
A community-based study of depression in older people in Hefei, China - the GMS-AGECAT prevalence, case validation and socio-economic correlates
- Authors:
- CHEN Ruoling, et al
- Journal article citation:
- International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19(5), May 2004, pp.407-413.
- Publisher:
- Wiley
Previously published studies of prevalence of depression in older people in China showed much variation in the results, while the pooled prevalence is low. In this study we used a standardised method, the Geriatric Mental State (GMS) to investigate the prevalence of depression in older people in China, validate the GMS-AGECAT depression cases and examine the relationship between depression and socio-economic deprivation. 1736 subjects aged 65 were recruited from Hefei city, China. They were interviewed at home by a survey team from Anhui Medical Universtiy using the GMS and other interviews. Their mental disorders were diagnosed by the Automated Geriatric Examination for Computer Assisted Taxonomy (AGECAT). Chinese psychiatrists re-examined depression cases and their controls. 39 depressed cases were diagnosed by the GMS-AGECAT. Age-standardised prevalence was 2.2% (95% CI 1.5-2.9), which was about five-times lower than that of older people in Liverpool, UK. Agreement on depression diagnoses between the GMS-AGECAT and local Chinese psychiatrists was 83.6%, with a Kappa of 0.67 (p<0.001). Depression was significantly related to socio-economic deprivation. This community-based study suggested a low prevalence of depression in older people in urban China. Approved training in the use of the GMS-AGECAT in mainland China should make it possible to carry out a large scale epidemiological study on depression in the Chinese elderly population to investigate its geographic variation and risk factors. The dose-response relation between socio-economic deprivation and depression indicates that strategies for tackling inequality in depression in elderly are urgently needed in China.
Unemployment and mental health among white collar workers: a question of work involvement and financial situation?
- Authors:
- RANTAKEISU Ulla, JONSSON Lef R.
- Journal article citation:
- International Journal of Social Welfare, 12(1), January 2003, pp.31-41.
- Publisher:
- Wiley
Examines whether it is a psychosocial or an economic need for employment that affects mental health among the unemployed. The relevance of both aspects are examined, concentrating on two measures of each dimension. Two perspectives of work involvement - the degree of connection to working life and the perceived employment commitment - and two perspectives on financial situation - economic security and perceived economic concern - have been analysed, using empirical data collected by means of a cross-sectional survey of 1297 unemployed white-collar workers from the public sector in Sweden. The degree of connection to working life was not significantly linked to the mental health of the unemployed, although there was a strong link between the perceived employment commitment and mental health among this group. The stronger the perceived employment commitment, the poorer the state of the person's mental health. Perceived economic concern was also tightly linked to mental health: the greater the economic concern, the poorer the mental health.
Inter-generational longitudinal study of social class and depression: a test of social causation and social selection models
- Authors:
- RITSHER Jennifer E.B., et al
- Journal article citation:
- British Journal of Psychiatry, 178(Supplement 40), April 2001, pp.84-90.
- Publisher:
- Cambridge University Press
Aims to test the extent to which social causation (low SES causing depression) and social selection (depression causing low SES) processes are in evidence in an inter-generational longitudinal study. Participants were interviewed up to four times over 17 years using the Schedule for Affection Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). Low parental education was associated with increased risk for offspring depression, even after controlling for parental depression offspring gender and offspring age. Neither parental nor offspring depression predicted later levels of offspring occupation, education or income. Concludes that there is evidence for an effect of parental SES on offspring depression (social causation) but not for an effect of either parental or offspring depression on offspring SES (social selection).
Coronavirus and depression in adults, Great Britain: June 2020
- Author:
- OFFICE FOR NATIONAL STATISTICS
- Publisher:
- Office for National Statistics
- Publication year:
- 2020
- Pagination:
- 15
- Place of publication:
- London
This article looks at depressive symptoms in adults in Great Britain before the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic (July 2019 to March 2020) and during the pandemic (June 2020). It looks at the same group of adults over a 12-month period, providing a unique perspective of how depression has changed over time. The analysis shows that almost one in five adults were likely to be experiencing some form of depression during the pandemic in June 2020; this had almost doubled from around 1 in 10 before the pandemic. Adults who were aged 16 to 39 years old, female, unable to afford an unexpected expense, or disabled were the most likely to experience some form of depression during the pandemic. Feeling stressed or anxious was the most common way adults experiencing some form of depression felt their wellbeing was being affected, with 84.9% stating this. Over two in five adults experiencing some form of depression during the pandemic said their relationships were being affected, compared with one in five adults with no or mild depressive symptoms. (Edited publisher abstract)