Disabled people face higher costs of living than do non-disabled people. These additional costs include the cost of adapting the home, overcoming the difficulties of getting about, and acquiring assistance with everyday tasks that non-disabled people can do unaided. This study estimated the implicit disability costs faced by older people, using data on over 8,000 individuals from the UK Family Resources Survey. It extended previous research by using a more flexible statistical modelling approach and by allowing for measurement error in observed disability and standard of living indicators. The study found that disability costs were strongly related to the severity of disability and to income, and at an average level of almost £100 per week among over-65s with significant disability they typically far exceed the value of any state disability benefits received.
Disabled people face higher costs of living than do non-disabled people. These additional costs include the cost of adapting the home, overcoming the difficulties of getting about, and acquiring assistance with everyday tasks that non-disabled people can do unaided. This study estimated the implicit disability costs faced by older people, using data on over 8,000 individuals from the UK Family Resources Survey. It extended previous research by using a more flexible statistical modelling approach and by allowing for measurement error in observed disability and standard of living indicators. The study found that disability costs were strongly related to the severity of disability and to income, and at an average level of almost £100 per week among over-65s with significant disability they typically far exceed the value of any state disability benefits received.
Subject terms:
older people, poverty, standard of living, disability living allowance, disabilities;
The number of people claiming incapacity benefits increased rapidly to the mid-1990s and has hardly reduced since then, despite efforts by governments of all parties to reduce them. This paper uses data from the General Household Surveys (GHS) between 1974 and 2005 to plot trends over time in the prevalence of disability, and in the employment rates of disabled people. Year on year outcomes for people with limiting long-standing illness (aged 20-59) are compared with those of people with no health problems. Much of the analysis is based on a loose definition of disability, but this is effectively complemented by more detailed data on health conditions available in some GHS years. The research shows that the ‘disability employment penalty’ (the measure of the extent to which disabled people are less likely to have a job than otherwise similar non-disabled people) increased from 17% in 1987 to 28% in 2000 and has not reduced since then. People without educational qualifications are more likely to be disabled, and their employment rates are more affected by disability, than people with degrees. The research supports the concept of disadvantage, a sliding scale of employment probabilities affected both by the nature and severity of people’s impairments, and by the willingness of employers to hire them.
The number of people claiming incapacity benefits increased rapidly to the mid-1990s and has hardly reduced since then, despite efforts by governments of all parties to reduce them. This paper uses data from the General Household Surveys (GHS) between 1974 and 2005 to plot trends over time in the prevalence of disability, and in the employment rates of disabled people. Year on year outcomes for people with limiting long-standing illness (aged 20-59) are compared with those of people with no health problems. Much of the analysis is based on a loose definition of disability, but this is effectively complemented by more detailed data on health conditions available in some GHS years. The research shows that the ‘disability employment penalty’ (the measure of the extent to which disabled people are less likely to have a job than otherwise similar non-disabled people) increased from 17% in 1987 to 28% in 2000 and has not reduced since then. People without educational qualifications are more likely to be disabled, and their employment rates are more affected by disability, than people with degrees. The research supports the concept of disadvantage, a sliding scale of employment probabilities affected both by the nature and severity of people’s impairments, and by the willingness of employers to hire them.
It is estimated that nearly 3 million workers in the UK provide informal care, involving activities such as shopping, cleaning and transport, to sick or elderly dependents. This study explored the association between access to flexible working and the amount of care provided by employees. It used data (from the Workplace Employment Relations Survey 2004) on nearly 1,600 workplaces in Britain, together with a random sample of up to 25 employees in each workplace. The data enabled matching of flexible work arrangements available to employees with the amount of informal care they give. The study found that flexitime and the ability to reduce working hours are each associated with about 10% more hours of informal care, that this effect is the same for men and women, and that the wider workplace environment beyond formal flexible work also appears to facilitate care. It did not find evidence that firms provide flexible working because they employ many carers, but noted that carers are more likely to be found in carer-friendly workplaces.
It is estimated that nearly 3 million workers in the UK provide informal care, involving activities such as shopping, cleaning and transport, to sick or elderly dependents. This study explored the association between access to flexible working and the amount of care provided by employees. It used data (from the Workplace Employment Relations Survey 2004) on nearly 1,600 workplaces in Britain, together with a random sample of up to 25 employees in each workplace. The data enabled matching of flexible work arrangements available to employees with the amount of informal care they give. The study found that flexitime and the ability to reduce working hours are each associated with about 10% more hours of informal care, that this effect is the same for men and women, and that the wider workplace environment beyond formal flexible work also appears to facilitate care. It did not find evidence that firms provide flexible working because they employ many carers, but noted that carers are more likely to be found in carer-friendly workplaces.
Subject terms:
staff, working hours, carers, conditions of employment, employment, flexible working;
UK Local Authorities purchase care home places on behalf of a large group of people based on a means test of their income and capital assets. People excluded by the means test are self-funded, and thus the care home market is characterised by a large number of small providers. Local authorities, using their buyer power, may be able to procure assisted places from these providers at a price below the market rate. Care homes might therefore have to charge higher fees to self-funders to subsidise publicly-funded residents, leading to induced 'price discrimination' in the care home market. This report provides a theoretical model of the care home market to establish the key effects of potential buyer power. A microsimulation model is used to quantify key findings from the theoretical model. The findings show that any abuse of this buyer power may lead to some people, ‘the squeezed middle’ not being served. The size of the squeezed middle is quantified. Various reforms to the means test remain under debate. The analysis suggests that the size of the squeezed middle is kept small by the current means test, and assesses the implications of the form of the means test for local authorities' ability to exercise buyer power.
UK Local Authorities purchase care home places on behalf of a large group of people based on a means test of their income and capital assets. People excluded by the means test are self-funded, and thus the care home market is characterised by a large number of small providers. Local authorities, using their buyer power, may be able to procure assisted places from these providers at a price below the market rate. Care homes might therefore have to charge higher fees to self-funders to subsidise publicly-funded residents, leading to induced 'price discrimination' in the care home market. This report provides a theoretical model of the care home market to establish the key effects of potential buyer power. A microsimulation model is used to quantify key findings from the theoretical model. The findings show that any abuse of this buyer power may lead to some people, ‘the squeezed middle’ not being served. The size of the squeezed middle is quantified. Various reforms to the means test remain under debate. The analysis suggests that the size of the squeezed middle is kept small by the current means test, and assesses the implications of the form of the means test for local authorities' ability to exercise buyer power.
Subject terms:
local authorities, long term care, models, self-funders, statistical methods, care homes, commissioning, financing;
This report, on potential differences in the economic circumstances of older claimants in England of Attendance Allowance (AA, non-means tested cash benefit claimable over-65) and Disability Living Allowance (DLA, non-means tested cash benefit claimable only under 65 but receipt of which can be continued after 65), is from the Institute for Social and EconomicResearch Working Papers series
This report, on potential differences in the economic circumstances of older claimants in England of Attendance Allowance (AA, non-means tested cash benefit claimable over-65) and Disability Living Allowance (DLA, non-means tested cash benefit claimable only under 65 but receipt of which can be continued after 65), is from the Institute for Social and EconomicResearch Working Papers series. It consists of a non-technical summary, introduction, and sections detailing ‘Family Resources Survey’ data between 2002 and 2005, ‘DLA and work histories in the working age population’, ‘the composition of the over-65 population’, and work histories, and incomes of AA and DLA recipients in the older population. “No evidence of greater income deprivation among DLA than AA recipients in terms of equivalised pre-benefit family income” was found. The governments’ perception of greater income deprivation among DLA compared with AA claimants, due to their earlier age of onset of disability and thus impaired earnings in earlier life, which had led to recent benefit reform proposals which would treat “recipients of AA less favourably than the recipients of DLA” is questioned, as is the validity of the proposed changes. Both AA and DLA claimant groups had substantially lower levels of average pre-benefit income than the older population in general.
Subject terms:
older people, socioeconomic groups, attendance allowance, disability living allowance, disabilities;
This report on the targeting, timing and financial wellbeing associated with older people’s participation in UK disability benefits is from the Institute for Social and EconomicResearch Working Paper series. Comprised of a non-technical summary, introduction, and sections entitled, ‘claiming and receiving Attendance Allowance’ (AA), ‘the British Household Panel Survey data’ (BHPS), ‘ empirical
This report on the targeting, timing and financial wellbeing associated with older people’s participation in UK disability benefits is from the Institute for Social and EconomicResearch Working Paper series. Comprised of a non-technical summary, introduction, and sections entitled, ‘claiming and receiving Attendance Allowance’ (AA), ‘the British Household Panel Survey data’ (BHPS), ‘ empirical analysis of receipt: targeting and timing’, ‘the impact of AA’ and ‘conclusions’, statistical analyses, relating to 17 waves of data, on the same people over time, are presented. The effectiveness of AA in practice is assessed by measuring, firstly, how responsive benefit receipt is to changes to disability status, secondly, the delays to first receipt and thirdly by comparing later outcomes of those who were, or were not, entered onto the program. Findings showed that “entry is highly responsive to previous changes in disability, and that the program enhances persistently recipients’ financial wellbeing.” But, receipt suffered “considerable delays” - up to 4 years. Also, “evidence of characteristics unrelated to eligibility influencing the assignment mechanism”, such as other people familiar with the benefits system in the household, suggests that the AA cash support system of could be improved for those without such help.
Subject terms:
older people, standard of living, wellbeing, attendance allowance, benefits, disabilities;
Drawing on pooled-quarter data from the UK Labour Force Survey (second quarter 1997 to fourth quarter 2008), this report looks at wage gaps for disabled men following the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act, which defined disability in terms of long-term health conditions which limit the activities of daily living. The authors measure differences in the incomes of ‘disabled people’ and those with long-tem health conditions which do not limit daily activity. The report differentiates between mental and physical illness. It was found that disabled and long term ill workers are paid significantly less than non-disabled workers, but this was partly due to reduced productivity and to differences in work-related characteristics, such as education or occupation. However those with mental health problems with no reduced productivity were still paid significantly less than non-disabled people, interpreted as resulting from discrimination.
Drawing on pooled-quarter data from the UK Labour Force Survey (second quarter 1997 to fourth quarter 2008), this report looks at wage gaps for disabled men following the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act, which defined disability in terms of long-term health conditions which limit the activities of daily living. The authors measure differences in the incomes of ‘disabled people’ and those with long-tem health conditions which do not limit daily activity. The report differentiates between mental and physical illness. It was found that disabled and long term ill workers are paid significantly less than non-disabled workers, but this was partly due to reduced productivity and to differences in work-related characteristics, such as education or occupation. However those with mental health problems with no reduced productivity were still paid significantly less than non-disabled people, interpreted as resulting from discrimination.
This research uses data from two British surveys conducted in 1999 and 2004, which looked at three aspects of children’s (11 and 15 years) developmental state - emotional difficulties, behaviour disorders and hyperactivity - from a parent, teacher, child (him/herself) and psychiatrist perspective. The study aimed to measure the reliability of using just one observer’s perspective in this area of research. Large differences existed between the four observer’s assessments, with low correlations between parents, teachers and children in terms of their Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) scores. Children assessed themselves more harshly than either teachers or parents, (teachers reported fewer symptoms than parents). Analysis of the income gradient estimated from data derived from one category of observer can result in different conclusions. Using SDQ scores a significant income gradient for emotional difficulties, behaviour disorders and hyperactivity is shown using parents’ or teachers’ assessments, whereas children’s self-assessments suggest an income gradient only exists for emotional difficulties. If these scores were used diagnostically quite different groups of cases would show as having mental health problems and those, in turn would differ significantly from psychiatric diagnoses. It is suggested that findings in this area may not robust and interpretations should define the source of the assessment.
This research uses data from two British surveys conducted in 1999 and 2004, which looked at three aspects of children’s (11 and 15 years) developmental state - emotional difficulties, behaviour disorders and hyperactivity - from a parent, teacher, child (him/herself) and psychiatrist perspective. The study aimed to measure the reliability of using just one observer’s perspective in this area of research. Large differences existed between the four observer’s assessments, with low correlations between parents, teachers and children in terms of their Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) scores. Children assessed themselves more harshly than either teachers or parents, (teachers reported fewer symptoms than parents). Analysis of the income gradient estimated from data derived from one category of observer can result in different conclusions. Using SDQ scores a significant income gradient for emotional difficulties, behaviour disorders and hyperactivity is shown using parents’ or teachers’ assessments, whereas children’s self-assessments suggest an income gradient only exists for emotional difficulties. If these scores were used diagnostically quite different groups of cases would show as having mental health problems and those, in turn would differ significantly from psychiatric diagnoses. It is suggested that findings in this area may not robust and interpretations should define the source of the assessment.
Subject terms:
hyperactive children, mental health problems, low income, parents, self-assessment, socioeconomic groups, teachers, young people, assessment, conduct disorders, emotionally disturbed children;
This paper analyses the impact of the recessions of the early 1980s and 1990s on non-employment patterns among people in the main range of working ages, and suggests that this information is also of relevance to the current recession. Two complete business cycles are observed, while long-term trends in pattern of non-employment are taken into account. The analysis is based on the General Household Surveys undertaken almost every year between 1974 and 2005, with a total sample of 360,672 adults. The paper shows the impact of cyclical factors on overall patterns of non-employment and which social groups are most affected. A key question is whether those already facing labour market disadvantage are the most likely to be affected by a downturn, but this is not the consistent conclusion of the paper. The findings show that people with poor educational qualifications, and members of minority ethnic groups are sensitive to the recession, but that women, older people and disabled people are not much affected, and that there is no pattern suggesting that people who live in disadvantaged areas are more affected than more prosperous regions.
This paper analyses the impact of the recessions of the early 1980s and 1990s on non-employment patterns among people in the main range of working ages, and suggests that this information is also of relevance to the current recession. Two complete business cycles are observed, while long-term trends in pattern of non-employment are taken into account. The analysis is based on the General Household Surveys undertaken almost every year between 1974 and 2005, with a total sample of 360,672 adults. The paper shows the impact of cyclical factors on overall patterns of non-employment and which social groups are most affected. A key question is whether those already facing labour market disadvantage are the most likely to be affected by a downturn, but this is not the consistent conclusion of the paper. The findings show that people with poor educational qualifications, and members of minority ethnic groups are sensitive to the recession, but that women, older people and disabled people are not much affected, and that there is no pattern suggesting that people who live in disadvantaged areas are more affected than more prosperous regions.
Subject terms:
social exclusion, unemployment, economic development;
The concept of ethnicity can be approached in a number of ways – as commonalities within a group or as differences from ‘other’ groups. Its multifaceted nature makes its measurement using a single measure almost impossible. Additionally, there is a lack of consensus among researchers about what is to be measured: while social psychologists are interested in understanding individuals’ identity, other researchers and policy makers are interested in social stratification where group memberships are seen as shaping group members’ outcomes and resulting in different life courses. For measuring ethnic identity in Understanding Society one way forward is to use a range of measures to capture different dimensions of ethnicity and ethnic group identity. Developing an ethnic self-identification (categorical) question is a major challenge.
The concept of ethnicity can be approached in a number of ways – as commonalities within a group or as differences from ‘other’ groups. Its multifaceted nature makes its measurement using a single measure almost impossible. Additionally, there is a lack of consensus among researchers about what is to be measured: while social psychologists are interested in understanding individuals’ identity, other researchers and policy makers are interested in social stratification where group memberships are seen as shaping group members’ outcomes and resulting in different life courses. For measuring ethnic identity in Understanding Society one way forward is to use a range of measures to capture different dimensions of ethnicity and ethnic group identity. Developing an ethnic self-identification (categorical) question is a major challenge.
Subject terms:
longitudinal studies, self-concept, survey design, black and minority ethnic people, ethnicity;