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Hidden challenges: Sex offenders legislated into homelessness
- Author:
- LEVENSON Jill S.
- Journal article citation:
- Journal of Social Work, 18(3), 2018, pp.348-363.
- Publisher:
- Sage
Summary: Zoning laws that prevent sex offenders from living within close proximity to schools and other places where children congregate have proliferated over the past 10 years. In many communities, few dwellings are compliant with these laws, causing sex offenders to become homeless. First, a brief history of residence restriction laws will be provided and then the research around their impact and effectiveness will be summarised, followed by empirically supported recommendations for reform. Findings: Legislating individuals into homelessness is not sound social policy, nor is it humane. These laws do not conform to what is known about patterns of sexual perpetration and victimisation, and thus do little to prevent recidivistic sexual violence. In fact, these policies may undermine the very factors shown by research to be associated with positive reentry and reduced recidivism. Applications: The grand challenge of social justice requires social workers to advocate on behalf of those who are marginalised in our communities including criminal offenders. Research-based policy reform can result in improved public safety outcomes and social justice in our communities. (Edited publisher abstract)
Adverse childhood experiences and arrest patterns in a sample of sexual offenders
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., SOCIA Kelly M.
- Journal article citation:
- Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(10), 2016, pp.1883-1911.
- Publisher:
- Sage
Developmental psychopathology theories suggest that childhood adversity can contribute to antisocial conduct and delinquent activities. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) on arrest patterns in a sample of sexual offenders (N = 740). Higher ACE scores were associated with a variety of arrest outcomes, indicating that the accumulation of early trauma increased the likelihood of versatility and persistence of criminal behaviour. Rapists of adults had higher ACE scores, lower levels of specialization, and higher levels of persistence than sex offenders with minor victims only. Child sexual abuse, emotional neglect, and domestic violence in the childhood home were significant predictors of a higher number of sex crime arrests. For measures of nonsexual arrests and criminal versatility, it was the household dysfunction factors — substance abuse, unmarried parents, and incarceration of a family member — that were predictive, suggesting that family dysfunction and a chaotic home environment contributed significantly to increased risk of general criminal behaviour. Sex offenders may be among those most in need of trauma-informed models of treatment that recognise the influence of early adversity on maladaptive schema and self-regulation deficits related to criminal behaviour. (Edited publisher abstract)
Adverse childhood experiences in the lives of male sex offenders: implications for trauma-informed care
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., WILLIS Gwenda M., PRESCOTT David S.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 28(4), 2016, pp.340-359.
- Publisher:
- Sage
This study explored the prevalence of childhood trauma in a sample of male sexual offenders (N = 679) using the Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) scale. Compared with males in the general population, sex offenders had more than 3 times the odds of child sexual abuse (CSA), nearly twice the odds of physical abuse, 13 times the odds of verbal abuse, and more than 4 times the odds of emotional neglect and coming from a broken home. Less than 16% endorsed zero ACEs and nearly half endorsed four or more. Multiple maltreatments often co-occurred with other types of household dysfunction, suggesting that many sex offenders were raised within a disordered social environment. Higher ACE scores were associated with higher risk scores. By enhancing our understanding of the frequency and correlates of early adverse experiences, we can better devise trauma-informed interventions that respond to the clinical needs of sex offender clients. (Edited publisher abstract)
Adverse childhood experiences in the lives of female sex offenders
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., WILLIS Gwenda M., PRESCOTT David S.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 27(4), 2015, pp.258-283.
- Publisher:
- Sage
This study explored the prevalence of early trauma in a sample of U.S. female sexual offenders (N = 47) using the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) scale. Compared with females in the general population, sex offenders had more than three times the odds of child sexual abuse, four times the odds of verbal abuse, and more than three times the odds of emotional neglect and having an incarcerated family member. Half of the female sex offenders had been sexually abused as a child. Only 20% endorsed zero adverse childhood experiences (compared with 35% of the general female population) and 41% endorsed four or more (compared with 15% of the general female population). Higher ACE scores were associated with having younger victims. Multiple maltreatments often co-occurred in households with other types of dysfunction, suggesting that many female sex offenders were raised within a disordered social environment by adults with problems of their own who were ill-equipped to protect their daughters from harm. By enhancing our understanding of the frequency and correlates of early adverse experiences, we can better devise trauma-informed interventions that respond to the clinical needs of female sex offender clients. (Publisher abstract)
The Good Lives Model (GLM): an evaluation of GLM operationalization in North American treatment programs
- Authors:
- WILLIS Gwenda M., WARD Tony, LEVENSON Jill S.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 26(1), 2014, pp.58-81.
- Publisher:
- Sage
The good lives model (GLM) has become an increasingly popular theoretical framework underpinning sex offender treatment programmes, and preliminary research suggests that the GLM may enhance the efficacy of programmes that adhere to the Risk, Need, and Responsivity (RNR) principles. However, this potential rests on the appropriate operationalisation of the GLM in practice. Operationalised appropriately, the GLM aims to facilitate risk reduction alongside equipping clients with the tools to live personally meaningful and fulfilling lives. However, misguided operationalisation of the GLM could result in ineffective treatment and ultimately higher rates of reoffending. This article presents findings from a multisite study exploring how the GLM has been operationalised and the degree to which the GLM has been integrated in a sample of 13 North American treatment programmes. A comprehensive coding protocol was developed that included items related to programme aims and client induction/orientation, assessment, intervention planning, intervention content, and intervention delivery. Each site was visited and items were rated through a review of programme documentation, interviews with programme directors/managers, and observations of treatment groups. Findings from inductive (how the GLM was operationalised) and deductive (the extent to which the GLM was integrated) analyses are presented and GLM consistent and inconsistent practices are highlighted. The article concludes with suggestions for ways in which programme responsiveness to the GLM could be enhanced. (Edited publisher abstract)
“But I didn’t do it!”: ethical treatment of sex offenders in denial
- Author:
- LEVENSON Jill S.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 23(3), September 2011, pp.346-364.
- Publisher:
- Sage
This article focuses on ethical both questions and issues related to the treatment of sex offenders in denial. It reviews both existing literature and the ethical codes of American Psychological Association (APA) and National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in order to guide the ethical decision-making process. However, analysis of the literature does not provide a clear link between denial and recidivism, though some studies suggest that decreased denial and increased accountability appear to be associated with greater therapeutic engagement and reduced recidivism for some offenders. The ethical codes of APA and NASW value the client’s self-determination and autonomy, and psychologists and social workers have a duty to empower individual well-being while doing no harm to clients or others. Clinicians should view denial not as a categorical construct but as a continuum of distorted cognitions requiring clinical attention. Denial might also be considered as a factor that can interfere with treatment progress. The article proposes that offering a reasonable time period for therapeutic engagement could provide a better alternative than routinely refusing treatment to sex offenders in denial.
Perceptions of sex offenders about treatment: satisfaction and engagement in group therapy
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., et al
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(1), March 2009, pp.35-56.
- Publisher:
- Sage
Surveying the views of sex offender clients can help ensure that treatment is relevant and responsive to client needs. The purpose of this exploratory study was to elicit sex offender clients' perceptions of their experiences in treatment in order to better understand the components of treatment perceived to be helpful in preventing reoffending. Samples (N = 338) of male sex offenders in outpatient group therapy are found to be generally satisfied with treatment services and have positive perceptions of treatment effectiveness. Offenders in treatment value the role of group therapy, and they find accountability, victim empathy, relapse prevention, and "good lives" concepts to be most helpful in managing their behaviour. Their engagement in group therapy is assessed using the Group Engagement Measure, and a positive correlation is found between engagement and treatment satisfaction. Eliciting client opinions about the helpfulness of program content and process, and adjusting treatment protocols accordingly, is consistent with the principles of risk, need, and responsivity, a model recommended for therapeutic interventions with criminal offenders.
Treatment experiences of civilly committed sex offenders
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., PRESCOTT David S.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(1), March 2009, pp.6-20.
- Publisher:
- Sage
The purpose of the study was to elicit feedback from sex offenders about the components of treatment that they believed to be most helpful in preventing reoffending. A sample of 44 civilly committed sex offenders from the Sand Ridge Civil Commitment Center in Wisconsin was surveyed about their perceptions of treatment, including content, process, therapists, rules, and completion requirements. Clients were asked to rate the importance of treatment components to their recovery and to rate their satisfaction with the treatment they received for each component. Participants expressed fairly positive sentiments about their treatment experiences, though specific concerns were noted. There was an overall positive correlation between importance of and satisfaction with treatment, but ratings of importance were consistently higher than ratings of satisfaction. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
The relationship between victim age and gender crossover among sex offenders
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., BECKER Jennifer, MORIN John W.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 20(1), March 2008, pp.43-60.
- Publisher:
- Sage
Data were collected from file reviews of 362 sex offenders being considered for civil commitment as sexually violent predators in Florida. The relationship between victim age and gender crossover was examined using chi-square and multivariate logistic regression analyses. A sex offender with a victim 6 years of age or younger had more than 3 times the odds of having perpetrated sex crimes against both genders than a sex offender with only older victims. Sex offenders with victims of both genders had more than 3 times the odds of having preschool victims. The presence of a major mental illness increased the odds of gender crossover more than threefold. Paedophilia increased the odds of having victims younger than 6 more than 11-fold. Implications for practice are discussed. The data supported the authors hypothesis that sex offenders with very young child victims are more likely to abuse both boys and girls.
Engagement, denial, and treatment progress among sex offenders in group therapy
- Authors:
- LEVENSON Jill S., MacGOWAN Mark J.
- Journal article citation:
- Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 16(1), January 2004, pp.49-63.
- Publisher:
- Sage
This study investigates the relationship between engagement, denial, and treatment progress among a sample of 61 male sex offenders in outpatient group therapy. Three hypotheses were posed: (1) that denial is inversely related to engagement in group therapy; (2) that denial is inversely related to treatment progress, and (3) that engagement is correlated with treatment progress. Results revealed a strong correlation between engagement in group therapy, measured by the Group Engagement Measure, and sex offender treatment progress, assessed by the Sex Offender Treatment Rating Scale. Denial, measured by the Facets of Sexual Offender Denial Scale, demonstrated a strong inverse relationship to treatment progress. Engagement and denial were also strongly inversely related. Together, engagement and denial explained a significant amount of the variance in treatment progress. The findings provide support for current standards of practice that maintain that admitting to a sex crime is a necessary condition for progress and engagement in treatment. Strategies for increasing engagement and treatment progress, and reducing denial, are discussed.